In this episode, I interview Dr. Robert Sapolsky, Ph.D., Professor of Biology, Neurology & Neurosurgery at Stanford University. We discuss stress, what defines short-term versus long-term stress and how stress can be beneficial or detrimental depending on the context. We also discuss stress mitigation and how our sense of control over stress-mitigation techniques, including exercise, determines health outcomes. Dr. Sapolsky explains some of the key effects of the hormone testosterone—how it can amplify pre-existing tendencies for aggression or sexual behavior but does not produce those behaviors per se. He also explains how testosterone impacts our social hierarchies, sense of confidence and willingness to embrace challenges of different kinds. He further explains how our behaviors and perceptions shape testosterone levels. We also discuss estrogen and the powerful role it plays in brain development, health and longevity. Finally, we discuss free will, what it means to have free will and whether we have any, including how knowledge alone might allow us to make better decisions for ourselves and society. For an up-to-date list of our current sponsors, please visit our website: https://www.hubermanlab.com/sponsors. Previous sponsors mentioned in this podcast episode may no longer be affiliated with us. Social & Website Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/hubermanlab Threads: https://www.threads.net/@hubermanlab Twitter: https://twitter.com/hubermanlab Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/hubermanlab TikTok: https://www.tiktok.com/@hubermanlab Website: https://www.hubermanlab.com Newsletter: https://www.hubermanlab.com/newsletter Apple Podcasts: https://apple.co/3thCToZ Spotify: https://spoti.fi/3PYzuFs Links Dr. Sapolsky's most recent book, "Behave: The Biology of Humans At Our Best & Worst": https://amzn.to/3yrZ6k7 Support Research in the Huberman Lab at Stanford on Stress, Sleep & Human Performance: https://hubermanlab.stanford.edu/giving Photo credit: Linda A. Cicero (used with permission from Stanford Medicine Media) Disclaimer: https://www.hubermanlab.com/disclaimer